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| I. |
Europe
in the Eighteenth Century |
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A. |
New
attitude about religion emerged at the beginning of the
eighteenth century. Flexibility and toleration began to reign. The
French Revolution ushered in the Age of Enlightenment and the
persistence of faith purified by trial forced the political powers
to restore to the church its place in society. |
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1. |
Changes
in the Eighteenth Century |
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A. |
A
traditional church gathers speed. |
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1. |
The
fruits of the previous century--the education of clergy,
purification of religious devotions, development of missions and
regular forms of worship formed a Christian society in Europe. In
1789 95% of the population were still Easter communicants. In spite
of the French Gallicanism(nationalism in the form of state and
church separate from Rome) and the Jansenist movement still being
proclaimed the church remained a vibrant force in Europe. This era
also produced such church greats as Alfonsus Liguori who formed the
Order of Redemptorists and openly wrote and fought against the
Jansenists and Benedict Labre, a contemplative of saintliness who
traveled on pilgrimage after pilgrimage in poverty and squalor
proclaiming the gospel. |
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2. |
Signs
of Flexibility--religious practice declined at this time and the
number of new Orders, slacking of morality, decline in vocations,
decline in religious reading and fear of the church helped to begin
the creation of the state taking over some of the many good works of
the church. It looked like a decline in Christianity, but in fact
Christianity moved to a new level. People involved in the Church
were people who truly wanted to be there and those who
didn't--didn't. Sound familiar? |
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See
Handout #207 |
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3. |
Mediocre
training and clergy--many priests and bishops were truly
dedicated and first rate in clerical circles. However, many bishops
still remained outside of their dioceses and held tightly to their
power and prestige in the material world through the nobility. Many
monasteries closed and religious houses closed due to the lack of
new novices. |
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4. |
Popes
without prestige--popes were nonentities at this time. They were
usually old men chosen at the end of a conclave just to get it over
with and they were more interested in ruling the papal states and
its monetary wealth than they were in the salvation and running of
the church. |
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B. |
The
Enlightenment attack on Christianity |
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1. |
The
triumph of reason--at the end of the seventeenth century a
"crisis of the European conscience" arose. Writer
philosophers such as Voltaire and Diderot raised as Christians by
Jesuits wanted to judge everything in light of reason which they set
against the obscurities of Christianity. Their writings became an
anti-Christian war machine to the masses. Science took on its own
language and disassociated itself from the metaphysical realm of
Christianity. |
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See
Handout #208 |
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2. |
Reason
against Revelation--public atheism was rare because it was
dangerous to express it openly, but many prided themselves on it
secretly. Most philosophers of this period thought that there was a
need for religion among the people, but most were inclined to deism;
i.e., God exists and created the world, but after that he left it
alone to fend for itself. For Voltaire God was that "Great
Watchmaker" in the sky. Church dogma was contrasted with reason
and nature. He campaigned against the church's stand in refusing to
follow to ways of nature and its hindrance of the good nature of
humanity. For Voltaire the Church and Christianity needed to be
obliterated and man's reason alone to run the world. |
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See
Handout #209 |
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C. |
The
Church stamped by Enlightenment philosophy--the church became
very defensive against these attacks and resorted to its old, tried
and true methods of censorship of certain books, a demand from the
state powers to intervene, and apologetic works. None of these had
much success. Not all was bad in the eyes of the church concerning
this period. It achieved reforms at the very heart of Catholicism.
In France books hit the market talking about being happy in this age
of philosophy using reason and religion in harmony. In Germany the
Catholic Enlightenment suggested a return to the original sources of
the Church, a purification of worship, a renewal of tolerance with
the Protestants. A Bavarian priest even wrote a Catechism of
pastoral theology for both Catholics and Protestants and practiced
ecumenism long before that word ever appeared in the language. |
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1. |
Anti-Romanism
and enlightenment despotism; i.e., absolute power--the general
feeling towards Rome at this time was "forget them '. What was
more important were the local churches and the local clergy.
Gallicanism was symptomatic of the attitude towards the papacy. Laws
were made in France that local orders were not dependent on Vatican
rulers and monastic orders were forced to close so that the king of
France could obtain their wealth. |
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2. |
The
Martyrdom of the Jesuits--faced with a weak papacy, the
enlightenment the despots
sought to become masters of the local church. The Jesuits were
suppressed not only by the French, but the pope as well. Indicative
of how much the local governments of the papal states had over the
pope who once considered the Jesuits their strongest militia. Pope
Clement XIV threw the Jesuit Superior General in jail and the
Portuguese murdered eighty Jesuits. |
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| II. |
The
Revivals in Protestantism and in the Eastern Churches |
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A. |
German
Pietism--pietism was a reaction against the worldly tendencies
of Protestantism. Protestant churches in Germany were official state
institutions. Protestants always regarded mysticism with suspicion
and distrust and were regarded as the unclean side of religion.
However some nostalgic people continued to read Thomas a Kempis'
Imitation of Christ, and other mediaeval authors. Jakob Boehme was a
shoemaker and he worked out a sort of pantheism everything is God)
and mysticism mix of Lutheranism. A deeply spiritual man he
encountered such opposition to his teachings that he eventually
converted to Catholicism and became a priest. |
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See
Handout #210 |
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B. |
Philip
Spener and the development of pietism--a Lutheran pastor from
Germany, he traveled around Europe gathering together small groups
of people to pray and read the Bible together. His idea was to set
up small study groups of the Bible, recognize the universal aspect
of priesthood, the importance of experience over theology,
experience a conversion through a deep crisis and through this
experience gain happiness and express it publicly. |
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See
Handout #211 |
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C. |
Zinzendorf
(1700-1760 A.D.), the enlightened despot-raised by women in
feminine piety he was a wealthy estate owner and had a deep
conversion experience at his first communion. He gathered rejected
or other persecuted Protestant sects around him on his estate and
ordained himself pastor and bishop. His autocratic rule of this
community led to his being banned from the community and he became a
missionary of Moravians. Eventually he settled down to found a new
Christian denomination: The Church of the Unity of Brethren. They
despised theology and dogmatism and relied on one's own experience
of God to lead them. |
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See
Handout #212 |
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D. |
The
Eastern Churches--the Tsar, Peter the Great (1694-1725 A.D.) in
1721 A.D. he suppressed the Patriarch of Russia and imposed a
spiritual rule on the Russian church. He formed a college of bishops
and priests to head the church and appointed a procurator to be the
real chief administrator of the church, which lost all independence
over the ruling powers. |
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See
Handout #213 |
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E. |
A
living spiritual tradition--in spite of the secularization of
the Orthodox church it remained strong in its own spiritual
tradition. Mount Athos continued to be the center and religious
heart of the Russian and Greek monks. |
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F. |
The
Maronite Church--among the churches in the Middle East, the
Lebanese Maronite church was physically attached to Rome. It
received close attention from French ambassadors and missionaries
from the Latin church. Unfortunately these attentions took the form
of a desire to Latinize this church which was strongly resisted. |
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| III. |
The
Shock of the Revolution--The French Revolution spread the spirit
of the Enlightenment period to all of Europe. The triumph of reason
in politics further increased the war against Christianity. |
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A. |
A
new church organization |
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1. |
The
clergy and the beginnings of the Revolution-unhappy with the
financial and political instability the three ruling classes of
France gathered together in one meeting on May 5,1789 to form the
National Constituent Assembly. Here the clergy, the nobility came
together to voice their grievances and desires for reform in the
church and on a national level. What resulted was the clergy and
nobility renounced all of their privileges. The new regime took its
Declaration from the inspiration from the doctrines of the
Enlightenment philosophers and the American Bill of Rights
proclaimed in the United States in 1776. Freedom, equality and the
right of ownership were inalienable rights. The wealth of the clergy
was given to the state and became national property. The state took
over the support of clergy and the services the church provided;
i.e., aid to the poor, hospitals, teaching etc... Unfortunately this
led to the devastation of churches and monasteries and other
artistic riches of the church. On February 13, 1790 a law was passed
that forbade the taking of religious vows and this devastated
religious communities. |
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2. |
The
Civil Constitution of the Clergy-the civilian government wanted
to harmonize the church with the state. Dioceses over the years had
been reduced from 135 to 85. One parish for every 6000 parishioners.
Bishops and priests would be elected by the same electors who
elected civilian officials. The pope was informed as to who was
installed as a bishop and was informed that he remained in union
with Rome. |
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3. |
The
constitutional oath- in October of 1790 A.D., 30 out of 32
bishops objected to this constitution because it had been done
without consulting the papacy. The pope did not answer the pleas
from his own bishops. The Assembly drew up an oath of allegiance to
the nation and to the king swearing to uphold the constitution as it
was written. Only 7 bishops signed the oath and about half the
clergy. By the end of 1790 A.D. those bishops and clergy who had
refused to sign the oath were removed and replaced by elected
bishops and priests who would sign it. |
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See
Handout #214 |
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4. |
Papal
Condemnation--in March of 1791 A.D., Pope Pius VI condemned the
new constitution of France arguing that it ignored the rights of
God. The pope demanded that all clergy who had taken the oath should
retract it and he prohibited all newly elected bishops from
exercising their functions. Schism occurred. The only recognized
church now in France was the constitutional church which had taken
over all church properties and those who resisted and remained loyal
to Rome went underground. Without simplifying this era too much many
priests signed the oath so that they could stay in their parishes
and continue to do the work of God. Even some of the bishops who
were elected and signed the constitution were worthy servants of
God. But because all of this was done in such haste, many priests
and bishops were elected who were less than desirable in leading the
church and the faithful. |
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See
Handout #215 |
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B. |
A
way of the cross for the Church of France--by 1792 A.D. and
France's war in Austria the scapegoat needed were those priests who
refused to sign the oath of the state. They became targets of
persecution since they continued to function in private places of
worship. They were considered enemies of the state and were deported
from the country. 30-40,000 priests left for countries throughout
the rest of Europe. |
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1. |
War
on religion--300 people who refused to attend the constitutional
churches were imprisoned and in 1792 A.D. were massacred along with
a thousand more throughout this year. The church registers were
confiscated by civil authorities and births, deaths and marriage
records were now in the hands of the state. Divorce became legal.
And with the assassination of King Louis XVI in 1793 A.D., the
unforgivable sin against the church by laying hands
on one of God's anointed ones was committed. |
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See
Handout #216 |
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2. |
The
Reign of Terror--from September 1793 A.D. to July 1794 A.D. the
desire to destroy all of Christianity in France became widespread.
The constitutional church no longer had any political clout and
became pawns in the hands of civil authorities. Religious buildings
began to be destroyed. Masquerades were held in churches and a
campaign for the abdication and marriage of priests proclaimed.
Those priests and nuns who refused these changes were considered
fanatics and executed. By the middle of 1794 A.D. all forms of
public worship in France
disappeared. The constitutional church ceased to exist. By July of
1794 A.D. the Reign of Terror on religion ceased due to the death of
the chief instigator Robespierre. |
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3. |
Revolution
exported--with the successes in France of the revolutionaries
other European countries were incorporated into the Republic of
France. Oaths were signed and martyrdom of priests and nuns
continued. The University of Louvain was closed in 1797 A.D. and 600
Belgium priests were deported. The French revolutionaries invaded
Italy and chased the Pope Pius VI out of Rome where they pillaged
and sacked Rome before being forced back. Pope Pius VI died in
exile. Many thought that this would be the end of reigning popes in
the Church. |
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C. |
The
Napoleonic era |
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1. |
The
Concordat--On March 14,1800 A.D. the cardinals met in Venice and
elected a new pope, Pius VII. This pope and his consultants formed
the Concordat of July 15,1801. This concordat compromises with the
French government and can be read in detail in article 218. After
the pope extracted resignations from all of the bishops of the old
order, he exercised something that had not been done since the
beginning of the church and that was to exercise his power like none
of his predecessors. The government guaranteed clergy's salary and
those of religious orders. The Concordat revoked the Civil
Constitution and the elected archbishops would be given canonical
status by the pope who were selected by his envoy. In 1802 A.D.,
Easter, the reestablishment of Catholic worship in France was
celebrated at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. There was great
rejoicing throughout the country and France became Latin Roman
Catholic once again. |
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See
Handout #217 |
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2. |
Reorganization
according to the Concordat--Napoleon was a master at
organization. He reduced the number of dioceses to 60 with 10
archdioceses and selected a mixture of the old constitutional
bishops and the pope's bishops to reinstate the church in the
country. In Germany the changes were brought about in the same
manner with some exceptions; i.e., the Germans secularized the
convents and monasteries and took their wealth, but supported them
through taxation. |
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See
Handout #218 |
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See
Handout #219 |
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3. |
A
short honeymoon--in France the honeymoon of this newly
reorganized church lasted several years before the old guard began
to die off. Few ordinations were being done since seminaries had
been closed for years and they had to be reopened as well as new
places of worship re-built. A renewal began which reaches it height
in the Restoration Chapter coming up. Napoleon reached his peak of
popularity when he invited the pope to come to France and crown him
emperor. The pope received a hero's welcome in Europe and took the
opportunity to emphasize the duty owed by the emperor to Pope of
Rome. |
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4. |
The
new struggle between the priesthood and the empire--the
relationship between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII deteriorated when
the pope refused to support Napoleon's blockade of all trade to
England. Napoleon invaded Rome and the pope excommunicated him. The
pope refused to consecrate any further bishops in France and
Napoleon decided to install his own. The French cardinals loyal to
Rome and not wanting to offend the emperor went to Rome and tried to
persuade the pope to give in to Napoleon. He refused and Napoleon
arrested him and took him back to France with him. Military
disasters forced Napoleon to send the pope back to Rome and it
looked like the pope had won this battle and was received in a
triumphal procession back to the Vatican in 1814 A.D. |
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D. |
The
legacy of the Revolution |
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1. |
Irreversible
changes--French and European Catholicism came out of the
Revolutionary period greatly changed. The Church wealth was now in
the hands of the laity. The pope had control of his bishops, but not
the people. People could be Christian or not. The church no longer
controlled the daily life of people which meant they also lost
control of the teaching institutes. The separation of church and
state was a done deal. Anticlericalism and atheism became a norm in
France. |
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A
purified Church--the faith of Christians that endured this
period became purified. The Church was forced to return to its
original message of the gospel. Priests had to be strong in their
faith and depended strongly on a centralized church structure.
Bishops; i.e., called purple prefects, were absolute masters in
their dioceses. They moved priests as they pleased and priests
became mini masters of their own parishes. The parish priest usually
came from the meager background of an agricultural family and with
ordination came a rise in his status and prestige. And with the
misfortunes of the popes good Christian people saw the return of the
Holy See as the only way to defend the faith against public power.
This loyalty to the pope became known as "Utramontanism "
and would last in Europe throughout the nineteenth century. |
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3. |
Two
Frances--the legacy of the Revolution divided France into two
sections. The old liberals of the revolution and the Catholics who
were the majority. The Catholics viewed the revolution as the work
of Satan. |
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Handouts |
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| 207 |
A society of
atheists can be perfectly moral. A Calvanist turned Catholic
turned Calvanist turned atheist criticizes the institutional
churches. |
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See
Full Text |
| 208 |
Christianity is
opposed to Nature. A letter to Voltaire from Diderot concerning
morality. |
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See
Full Text |
| 209 |
The Religion of
Rousseau. A letter to Emile concerning philosopher writing to the
scriptures. |
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See
Full Text |
| 210 |
Mystical
nostalgia in a Lutheran. A poet tells of his mystical experience as
a convert to Catholicism. |
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See
Full Text |
| 211 |
Pietism. A
Lutheran pastor wants to reintroduce emotionalism in Protestantism. |
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See
Full Text |
| 212 |
Nicolas-Ludwig
von Zinzendorf (1700-1760 A.D.) speaking to children about
emotionalism in love with the Lord. |
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See
Full Text |
| 213 |
Saint Tikhon of
Zadonsk (1724-1783 A.D.) Biographical note on a monk. |
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See
Full Text |
| 214 |
Pope Pius VI
condemns the principles of the French Revolution |
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See
Full Text |
| 215 |
A Revolutionary
Christ. A theology of Christ as a revolutionary. |
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See
Full Text |
| 216 |
Revolutionary
de-Christianization. A priest renounces his priesthood. |
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See
Full Text |
| 217 |
Proposal on
religion by Napoleon Bonaparte at the time of the negotiations on
the Concordat. He supports the return to religion. |
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See
Full Text |
| 218 |
The 1801
Concordat. Catholicism re-stored in France. |
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See
Full Text |
| 219 |
The Organic
Articles. Police rules concerning what comes from the Vatican either
in the form of letters or people without government's permission. |
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See
Full Text |
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